Abstract: "Kaishan Mangjiang," an indispensable role in the Nuo opera of the Tujia, Han, and Miao ethnic groups in northern Guizhou, is one of the most representative masks in the opera. By analyzing its origins, structural design, and metaphorical implications of its ethnic cultural identity, we can see how this mask serves as a concentrated reflection of the deep integration between ethnic culture and artistic expression in the region.
Keywords: Guizhou, Nuo Opera, Kaishan Mangjiang, ethnic cultural identity
1. The Significance of Researching "Kaishan Mangjiang"
Nuo opera is primarily popular in the Tujia, Han, and Miao regions of eastern, northern, southern, and northwestern Guizhou. It is worth noting that many researchers tend to equate northern Guizhou Nuo opera solely with the Tujia people, which is a narrow approach. Nuo opera is also popular among the Han and Miao in this region, as confirmed by existing mask artifacts. From a research perspective, it should not be limited to a specific place or ethnicity but rather discussed as a common feature of regional folk religious culture. Over the past 30 years, since the 1980s, many studies have been published introducing and researching this local opera, which will not be elaborated on here. This article focuses on the study of the character "Kaishan Mangjiang," not to artificially exaggerate its significance, but because it is an inherent reflection of the region's cultural and artistic embodiment.
The term "Kaishan" in Chinese generally has several meanings: the initial stage of something; in Buddhism, the building of a temple in a mountain without one, later extended to the creation of an industry or school of thought, or the pioneer or first host; clearing barren land. "Kaishan Mangjiang" is also known as "Kaishan Mengjiang" or simply "Kaishan" or "Mountain King" (Mountain God). Etymologically, the meaning is clear. The people of northern Guizhou endowed this character with an idealized cultural imagination, carrying positive metaphorical connotations. The saying "Heaven doesn't stay clear for three days, the land isn't flat for three feet, and people don't have three cents of silver" describes the natural mountainous terrain and climatic conditions of Guizhou, which greatly restrict the local people's survival and development. The ethnic groups in the region longed for growth and hoped for a deity who could bring practical improvements to their lives. This is how "Kaishan Mangjiang" emerged, fitting the internal and external logic of these communities. The name "Kaishan Mangjiang" (or "Mengjiang") suggests a warrior or a general, reflecting the traditional farming society's reverence and superstition towards physical strength, and a simple, direct understanding of survival and life.
The decision to discuss "Kaishan Mangjiang" as a representative of the ethnic cultural image in northern Guizhou Nuo opera is based on several considerations. In terms of design, this character's appearance is imaginative, grotesque yet simple, with heteromorphic symmetry, providing a sense of sublime beauty. The originality of the design reflects the unique aesthetic characteristics of the region's ethnic culture. From a functional perspective, the character's role as a deity who drives away evil and brings blessings reflects the cultural imagination of peace and stability for the community. Religiously, the character represents a blend of shamanistic Nuo beliefs and Taoism, symbolizing natural and ancestor worship. From the perspective of cultural dissemination, local governments have intentionally promoted the importance of this character, making it a symbol of the region's Nuo culture. The character's exaggeration and mysticism also reflect the core cultural features of Nuo shamanism. Therefore, researching this character in depth holds significant value for understanding the region's ethnic culture.
2. The Mystery of the Identity of "Kaishan Mangjiang"
There are various interpretations regarding the identity of "Kaishan Mangjiang." One legend claims that "Kaishan Mangjiang" was a great general under Chiyou, known for his bravery and many military achievements. However, this claim is not verifiable and likely reflects a retrospective association with Miao or Yelang culture. Additionally, some legends suggest he was an incarnation of the Pangu King, also known as the Five Fierce Gods or Five Fierce Troops. However, this explanation lacks logical basis. According to Wang Guohua, a cultural inheritor from Dejiang, the Five Fierce figures are depicted in both the Three Purities and Bridge rituals he paints. Although they share similar functions with "Kaishan Mangjiang," the two are clearly not the same.
Famous Guizhou Nuo culture researcher Gu Puguang suggests that based on the design of "Kaishan Mangjiang," there is a distinction between benevolent and malevolent gods. The former is good and righteous, while the latter is fierce and exaggerated. "Kaishan Mangjiang" is typically introduced in the second half of a Nuo performance, belonging to the "malevolent gods" series alongside other powerful deities such as Dragon Kings, spirit officers, and Zhong Kui. According to Gu, "Kaishan Mangjiang" is a demon-slaying general from the Peach Blossom Cave, who stands over ten feet tall, has two red horns, eats an entire cow in one meal, and causes the earth to tremble when walking. Armed with a glowing axe, he specializes in killing demons from all directions and protecting the weak.
Scholar Li Yu argues that "Kaishan Mangjiang" has roots in ancient mythology and even ranks above figures like Erlang Shen, influencing cultures beyond China. His theory is based on two points: first, "Kaishan Mangjiang" introduces himself as a Pangu incarnation in the opening of the Nuo opera "Ji Mao Da Tie" (Chicken Feather Strikes Iron). Second, in Ceng Jiawu's "History of Totem Art" (1930), the "Kaishan Mangjiang" deity with horns is depicted, closely related to the traditional dragon totem of Chinese culture. Based on this, Li concludes that the Mountain King (Kaishan Mangjiang) underwent a long evolutionary process, transforming from a natural god (Aurora) to the mountain deity Zhu Long, and eventually to the Nuo god Pangu. During this transformation, the figure's role evolved into that of "Kaishan Mangjiang," who slays demons and retrieves lost souls. In contrast, Gu Puguang categorizes the character as part of the malevolent gods, while Li sees it as a benevolent deity influenced by Buddhist iconography.
In conclusion, research on the identity and origins of "Kaishan Mangjiang" remains incomplete, with no systematic analysis or comprehensive historical evidence.
3. The Grotesque Yet Primitive Beauty of the Design
In crafting the "Kaishan Mangjiang" mask, folk traditions follow a strict formula. Dejiang Nuo Mask maker Li Shihong abides by the rule, "Flame eyebrows, wide eyes, wielding an axe in the Nuo hall, slashing the five plagues; two horns on the head, fangs and a bloodthirsty god." In the words of Fengxiang Creek's Wang Guohua, “three inches below, three inches above; five centimeters wide in the middle, symmetrical on both sides.” These guidelines ensure both the detail and balance of the character's image.
In legends, "Kaishan Mangjiang" is described as a towering figure who causes the earth to quake, devours oxen, and is a feared god in the Nuo ceremonies, responsible for slaying demons and retrieving souls. The grotesque and exaggerated features such as horns, fangs, and bulging eyes make this mask both terrifying and awe-inspiring.
4. Symbolic Analysis of the Mask Composition
In Zhuangzi's "Heaven and Earth," it is said, "Without the Dao, forms do not emerge; without virtue, life does not flourish." Taoist imagery, therefore, reflects both divine virtues and religious values. In "Journey to the West," the magical headband placed on Sun Wukong to control him parallels the symbols carved on the foreheads of the "Kaishan Mangjiang" masks. These carvings suggest that, while powerful, the character’s abilities are bound by higher powers.
The primary colors used in the masks—red and black—are significant. Red symbolizes justice and warmth, while black represents darkness and evil. This duality reflects the ancient view of the universe's opposing forces. The use of these colors dates back to pre-Qin burial traditions, highlighting their deep cultural and historical roots.
