[Note] This is an article on Nuo culture research written in 1987, which first proposed the concept of "Nuo culture". I didn't expect this research to flourish. At that time, I wrote two other articles, one titled "Folklore Thoughts on Chinese Nuo Culture" and the other "Chinese Mask Culture", which will be uploaded successively.
Nuo and Nuo sacrifices are extremely ancient traditional cultural phenomena in China, with a long history and distant origins. In Chinese cultural history and Chinese cultural studies, Nuo belongs to the category of shamanic culture. Shamanic culture is a broad concept that includes all shamanic activities and many related cultural phenomena. From a folklore perspective, Nuo sacrifices, Nuo dances, Nuo operas, etc., are all folk phenomena passed down orally (through verbal expression) and behaviorally in folk society. In the history of Chinese cultural development, shamanic culture was once its pioneer. It was continuously enriched and developed in the long historical development process, continuing to this day, thus forming the colorful background of today's Chinese folk culture.
The main areas where shamanic culture spreads in our country are rural areas, and its coverage is still quite extensive today. In the entire shamanic cultural inheritance system, the author believes that there are two cultural phenomena that seem particularly worthy of attention and research. These are the Shamanism culture spread among the northern ethnic groups and the Nuo culture spread among the southern ethnic groups. Although both cultures belong to the category of shamanic culture, from their inheritance, there are many essential differences in both content and form of expression. It is interesting to compare and study them. This article attempts to explore the status of Nuo culture in Chinese cultural history and its value in Chinese cultural studies (mainly folklore) through the discussion of the laws of inheritance and evolution of Nuo culture; and to explore the connections and differences between the northern and southern shamanic cultures through the comparison of Shamanism culture and Nuo culture.
Here is the English translation of the next section:
I. The Origin, Evolution and Development of Nuo
Nuo or Nuo sacrifice is an ancient shamanic activity. According to historical records, during the Shang and Zhou dynasties in China, this shamanic activity was not only very prevalent in the vast Central Plains region but was also passed down from generation to generation in a fixed pattern. Regarding the original meaning of "Nuo", the "Shuowen Jiezi" explains it as "moving with rhythm". Duan's annotation states: "Moving with rhythm and measure. This is the original meaning of this character. The character for exorcising epidemics was originally written as 'nan', but 'nuo' was borrowed to represent exorcising epidemics, and the original meaning of 'nuo' was abandoned." From this, we can see that moving with rhythm, that is, moving with measure and rhythm, is the original meaning of "Nuo". In "The Book of Songs · Wei Feng · Bamboo Pole", the third stanza says: "With her clever smile and beautiful teeth, her jade ornaments tinkling." The "Mao Commentary" says: "Moving with rhythm and measure." "Nuo" interpreted as exorcising demons is using the borrowed meaning of Nuo, at which time "Nuo" is a borrowed character for "Nan".
Nan was originally written as (堇+鸟). The "Shuowen Jiezi" says: "(堇+鸟) (nan) is a bird, from bird, with jin as the phonetic component. (堇+鸟) is sometimes written with jia." However, "nan" interpreted as exorcising epidemics is also a borrowed meaning. The original meaning of "nan" is bird.
Since "nuo" and "nan" are both commonly borrowed characters and not the original characters, what is the original character for exorcising demons and epidemics? Its original character is "(鬼+堇)". The "Shuowen" explains "(鬼+堇)" as: "An exclamation of seeing ghosts, from ghost, with nan as the simplified phonetic component." Duan's annotation: "(鬼+堇) is the exclamation when seeing ghosts and being frightened. (鬼+堇) is the combined sound of 'nai he', the exclamation 'na' in the wind is this (鬼+堇) character." In the "Zuo Zhuan", the second year of Duke Xuan's reign says "If one abandons armor, then na", where "na" is the combined sound of "nai he". The "Shuowen Tongxun Dingsheng" explains (鬼+堇) as "The appearance of being frightened upon seeing ghosts, from ghost, with nan as the simplified phonetic component. Note: (鬼+堇) with simplified phonetic is read like nuo, this is the correct character for exorcising epidemic demons, beating drums and shouting loudly as if seeing ghosts and driving them away, hence called (鬼+堇). In classics and commentaries, nuo is used for it."
Etymological knowledge tells us that what we now call nuo (such as Nuo sacrifice, Nuo dance, etc.) is the exorcism of epidemic demons. Its original character should be "(鬼+堇)". "Nuo" and "nan" are both borrowed characters. This phenomenon in etymology is called ancient phonetic borrowing, belonging to borrowing when there is already an existing character, that is, "(鬼+堇)" already existed but was not used, and instead a character "nuo" with the same sound but unrelated meaning was borrowed. Later, the borrowed character "nuo" replaced the original character "(鬼+堇)", and the original meaning of the borrowed character "(鬼+堇)" gradually disappeared, which is what Duan's annotation refers to as "the original meaning of nuo is abandoned." Understanding the evolution of character meanings is very important for understanding the evolution of Nuo culture.
The most primitive form of Nuo culture is Nuo sacrifice. Nuo is the exorcism of epidemic demons, which is also the theme of ancient Nuo customs. Nuo custom activities are actually a type of exorcism in primitive sorcery. Ancient Nuo sacrifices were divided into national Nuo and rural Nuo. The "Monthly Ordinances" in the "Book of Rites" says: "The Son of Heaven dwells in the left room of the palace, rides in a dark carriage drawn by iron-black horses, carries black jade, eats millet and pork, uses large deep vessels. He orders the officials to perform a great exorcism, sacrificing earth oxen to send off the cold air." Kong Yingda's annotation says: "The Correct Meaning says: 'At this time of the month①, the officials are ordered to perform a great Nuo sacrifice. Now Nuo (exorcism) is to remove yin energy, saying it is great because in the last month of spring it is for the country's Nuo, in the middle month of autumn it is for the Son of Heaven's Nuo, this one extends to the common people. Therefore it says great Nuo and sacrifice on all sides, meaning at the gates in all directions, all sacrifice victims to exorcise yin energy; sacrificing earth oxen to send off the cold air means to make them. At this time, strong yin is abundant, the year is ending, if yin is not removed, inauspicious evil may harm people in the coming year.'" This says that in ancient times, from the emperor to the common people, great importance was attached to Nuo sacrifices, and the scale was very large. Large Nuo sacrifices were held three times a year, in the last month of spring, the middle month of autumn, and winter. Only the ruling class could participate in the first two times, only the winter one extended to the common people, called "rural Nuo".
Here is the continued translation:
Although the theme of Nuo sacrifice was exorcising demons and epidemics, sometimes it went beyond this scope and combined with people's omens and belief customs. The "Dream Divination" in the "Rites of Zhou" says: "Dream divination is in charge of observing the convergence of heaven and earth in the seasons and years, distinguishing the qi of yin and yang. Using the sun, moon, and stars to divine the auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of six dreams. The first is the正梦 (zheng meng), the second is the思梦 (si meng), the fourth is the寤梦 (wu meng), the fifth is the喜梦 (xi meng), and the sixth is the惧梦 (ju meng). In the last month of winter, the king's dreams are inquired about, auspicious dreams are presented to the king, the king bows and receives them, then offerings are made in the four directions to dispel inauspicious dreams. Then the Nuo exorcism begins, driving away epidemics."
This talks about using the time and position of the convergence of the sun, moon, and stars as a reference to divine the auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of dreams. At the end of each year in the last month of winter, the records of auspicious dreams that have come true throughout the year are compiled and presented to the monarch. The monarch performs the菜礼 (cai li) ritual in each direction (舍萌, she meng), eliminating inauspicious dreams, and orders the方相氏 (fang xiang shi) to eliminate evil and drive away disease-causing demons.
The方相氏 (fang xiang shi) was the central figure in ancient Nuo sacrifices, playing a crucial role. His attire during Nuo sacrifices was different from others. The "Rites of Zhou · Summer" says: "The方相氏 has four madmen." Zheng Xuan's annotation says: "方相 is like saying 'frightening appearance', a fearsome look." The "Rites of Zhou · Summer Offices" also says: "The方相氏 is in charge of wearing bear skin, with four golden eyes, dressed in dark clothes with a vermilion skirt, holding a halberd and shield, leading a hundred servants to perform the Nuo, searching houses to drive away epidemics." This kind of exorcism wearing bear skin and masks can be seen in many primitive tribes today. From the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Han and Tang dynasties, the scene of the方相氏 leading a hundred servants to perform the Nuo and drive away epidemics was grand. There are abundant records in literature.
The "Book of Later Han · Treatise on Rites and Ceremonies" says: "One day before La Festival is the great Nuo, called expelling epidemics. Its ritual: Select sons of noble families (黄门) aged ten to twelve, one hundred and twenty people as children (侲子), all wearing red caps and black clothes, holding large tambourines. The方相氏 has four golden eyes, wears bear skin, dark clothes with a vermilion skirt, holds a halberd and shield; twelve beasts[1] have fur and horns, led by palace officials. Attendants and commanders lead them to drive out evil spirits from the forbidden palace. At night when the water clock shows the time, court officials gather; Lang Zhong, Shang Shu, censors, announcers, tiger warriors, feathered forest guards all perform duties, wearing red caps, guarding the imperial carriage, which arrives at the front hall. The Yellow Gate Chief announces: 'The children are ready, please expel the epidemics.' Then the palace officials lead, and the children respond: 'Jia makes food for misfortune, (月弗) stomach eats tigers, Xiong Bo eats demons, Teng Jian eats inauspiciousness, Lan Zhu eats blame, Bo Qi eats dreams, Qiang Liang and Zu Ming together eat those quartered to death and parasites, Wei Sui eats observations, Cuo Duan eats giants, Qiong Qi and Teng Gen together eat gu poison. In all, twelve gods chase away evil, burn your body, tear your liver, dismember your flesh, pull out your liver and intestines, if you don't leave quickly, the latter will be your mother.' Then the方相氏 and twelve beasts dance, shouting joyfully all around, going through three times, hanging torches to send the epidemics out the palace gate. Outside the gate, horsemen pass the torches, out to the Sima Palace Gate, where outside the gate five camp cavalrymen pass the fire, discarding it in the Luo River. All officials' offices each use wooden masks of beasts, able to be Nuo masters. When finished, peach branches and yu bamboo are set up, when the bamboo is done, those performing duties on the steps are finished. Peach sticks and bamboo spears are given to dukes, princes, generals, and feudal lords."
The Sui Dynasty followed the old system of Nuo. The "Book of Sui" says: "According to the Qi system: On the last day of the last month of winter, select sons of musicians, aged ten to twelve as children (侲子), totaling two hundred and forty people. One hundred and twenty wear red caps and black robes, holding tambourines; one hundred and twenty wear red cloth pants and jackets, holding horns. The方相氏 has four golden eyes, wears bear skin on the head, dark clothes with a vermilion skirt, holds a halberd and shield. Also make Qiong Qi, Zu Ming and other twelve beasts, all with fur and horns. Drums and pipes lead them, palace officials conduct them, attendants and commanders lead them, to drive out evil spirits from the forbidden palace. On that day, at the fourth watch of the night three calls are made, opening the gates of all neighborhoods, those performing Nuo gather in their attire and with weapons to await duties; at the fifth watch of the night four calls are made, opening all city gates, both guards are strict. At the first point of the upper water, the emperor in normal dress takes his seat, princes and officials of the first rank down to the sixth rank line up in double rows to observe. Those performing Nuo enter noisily through the west gate, going all around the forbidden palace, dividing to exit through two upper corridors, performing the dance of the方相氏 and twelve beasts. Shouting joyfully all around, they exit noisily through the south gate, dividing into six roads, going out to the suburbs."
In the Tang Dynasty, the方相氏 still appeared in the great Nuo ceremony, but there were differences in the composition and division of labor of the entire Nuo sacrifice team.
By the Song Dynasty, the方相氏, twelve beasts, and children (侲子) had disappeared from the Nuo sacrifice. The Nuo dance that formed on the basis of Nuo sacrifice developed greatly. On New Year's Eve, the Nuo ritual was performed by various imperial city officials and Music Bureau performers. Volume 10 of "The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor" says:
"On New Year's Eve, the forbidden palace presents the great Nuo ritual, using imperial city officials. Various guards wear masks, embroidered colored clothes, hold golden spears and dragon flags. The Music Bureau official Meng Jingchu, tall and strong, wears full gold-plated copper armor as a general; uses two palace guards also in armor as door gods; the Music Bureau's Nanhe charcoal, ugly and huge, dresses as a judge; there are also impersonations of Zhong Kui, Little Sister, Earth God, Kitchen God and the like, totaling over a thousand people, driving out evil spirits from the forbidden palace out the Nanxun Gate, turning at Dragon Pool Bay, called 'burying evil spirits' before dispersing."
After the Song Dynasty, figures like Zhong Kui often appeared in Nuo rituals performing theatrical plays, which was a major change in the content of ancient Nuo rituals. As we can see from the above literature records, the trajectory of the formal evolution of Nuo experienced the development from Nuo sacrifice to Nuo dance to Nuo opera. The trajectory of the thematic evolution of Nuo experienced the development from exorcising demons to entertaining gods to entertaining people.
